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Союз Советских Социалистических Республик; Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik
??? ??????? ????????; (1955–1991)	; ???? ??????? ???????? (1956–1991)
	?????? ?????? : ; "Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь!"; Proletarii vsekh stran, soyedinyaytes'!; ("?? ???? ??????? ??????!")
	?????? : ; "Интернационал"; Internatsional; ("???? ???????"); (1922–1944); ; "Государственный гимн СССР"; Gosudarstvennyy gimn SSSR; ("?????? ?????? ????????"); (1944–1991);
	??????? ???????? ?? ??? 1945 ??? ??? 1991
???? ????	???????? ?????????? ????????
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???? ?????	1922–1927:; ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??????; 1927–1953:; ???? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ????????? ???????? ??????; 1953–1990:; ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??????; 1990–1991:; ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????;
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?????	??????????; ??????????; ?????????; ????????; ????????; ???????; ??????????; ??????????; ????????; ??????????; ?????????; ????????; ??????????; ?????????; ?????????; ?????????; ????????; ?????????; ?????????; ????? ?????????; ???????; ?????????; ?????????; ????????; ??????? ?? ?????? ??????;
???????	???? ???????; ????? ??????
????????? ???????	70% ???? ??????; 12% ?????; 18% ????;
??????
???????? ?????	1922–1924
????? ??????	1924–1953
????? ????????	1953
?????? ???????	1953–1964
?????? ???????	1964–1982
???? ????????	1982–1984
??????? ?????????	1984–1985
??????? ?????????	1985–1991
??? ??????
??????? ???????	1922–1946 (???)
??????? ?????????	1988–1991 (??????)
??? ???????
???????? ?????	1922–1924 (???)
????? ???????	1991 (??????)
???????
?????? ?????????	?????? ???????; (1922–1936); ???? ??????? ??????; (1936–1991)
?????????? ????????
	??????? ... ????? ??????? (24 ?????? 1945–24 ?????? 1991); ??? ????? (14 ???? 1955–1 ????? 1991); ????? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? (25 ????? 1973–????? 1992); ???? ??????? ????????? (25 ????? 1949–28 ????? 1991); ????? ??????? ?????? ??????; ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? (1946–1991); ??? ????? (–1990)
???????
?????? ?????????	????? ???????
?????? ????????	7 ?????? 1917
???????	30 ?????? 1922
????? ????? ???????	16 ????? 1923
??????? ?????	31 ????? 1924
??????? ??????	5 ?????? 1936
??????? ???????	22 ????? 1941
???????? ?? ????? ???????? ???????	9 ???? 1945
?????? ??????????	25 ?????? 1956
??????? ??????	9 ?????? 1977
??? ??????? ?????	11 ???? 1990
???? ???? ???????	14 ???? 1990
???????? ?????????	8 ?????? 1991
????? ????	26 ?????? 1991
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???????	22402200 ??????? ???? (1991)
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1989	▲ 286,730,819 ????
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??????	???? ?????? (руб)
??? ????????	.su
??? ?????? ??????	+7
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	1924:; ????? ???????
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	1939:; ??????
	1940:; ??????
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	1944:; ????
	1945:; ??????? ???????
	1946:; ?????????????
1990:; ????????
1991:; ??????
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	Notes ^ ????? № 142-Н ?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????. (????????).; ^ ??????? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? 1944 ??? ??? 1956 ???? ???? ??????. ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?? 1956 ??? 1977. ?? ????? ????? ????? ?? 1977 ??? 1991.; ^ ??? ??? 1990? ??? ?????????? ????????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???????.; ^ ?? ?????? ?? 19 ?????? 1990? ??? ????.;
	????? ????? - ?????

百度对于中国当下的种种投资热，这或许是一面很好的镜子。

????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ???????? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ??? 1922? ??? ???????? ?? ??? 1991?. ????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??????.

??? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ???????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? 1917? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??? 1918? ???? 1921?. ?? ????? ?????????? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? 1917? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ???????????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??? ???????????? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????????? ???? ??????? ??????. ???? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????????. ????? ??? 1922?? ????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ????????.

???? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ??????? (????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??) ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???????? ?????????. ?????? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ???????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ???????????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ???????.

??? ???? ????? ??? 1924?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ???? 1930? ?1933? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????????. ?? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????. ???? ????? ???????????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ???. ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? 1939?. ???? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? 1941? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????. ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????. ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?? 28 ????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????????. ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????????? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ????.

??? ???????? ??????????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??? ????? ???????. ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ??????? (??????) ?? ??? 1949?? ??? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? 1955?. ?? ????? ?? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ????????. ?? ??? 1953?? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????????. ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????. ???? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???? ???.

?? ??? 1985? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? (??????????) ?????? ??????? (?????????????). ?? ??? 1989?? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ???????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ???????. ?????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ???????. ?? ??? 1991?? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ?? ??? ???????? ???? ?????????? - ???????? ?????? ?????????? - ??? ????????. ?? 26 ??????? ????? ????????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????. ???? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????? ???? ???? ?????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????????. ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ????? ?? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?????.

??? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????????? ??????. ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????. ??? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??????. ????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????. ????? ???? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ????? ???????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ???????. ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ??????????? (???? ?? ?????? ???????)? ????? ????????? ????? ??????????? ????????? ???????.

??? ????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ????. ???? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ???. ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????????? (???? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????????? ?????????)? ???? (?? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????)? ????? (?? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????)? ????? (?? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????)? ???? ??? (?? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????) ????????????.

?????

????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????? ??? Союз Советских Социалистических Республик (Союз Советских Социалистических Республик^?) ??: (????? ????????? ???????????????? ?????????) ????? ??????? ???????? СССР ?? ??? ?? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ????????^[9] (????? ??????? ?????????) ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ??????? ??? Советский Союз? (???????? ?????). ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? (?????? ?????? ??? ???????) ???? ????????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????????? ?? ??? ???????????? ??????? ??????? ??? 1905?. ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????.

????????? ?????????

???? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????? 22,276,060 ??????? ????. ???????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ???????? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ????? ??????? (?? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????? / ??????? ???) ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????????? ???????? ?????. ???? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????????? ????????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ?????? 12 ????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? (???????. ???????. ??????. ??????? ??????? )

??? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ????? 60,000 ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????.

???????

????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ????????? ???????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ??? ???????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? 1917 ??? ?????? ???????????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?? ????????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??????.

???? 1917 ???? 1922 ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???? 1922 ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? (????? ???? ???? ????? ????????) ???????? ??? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ???.

??? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??? 1940 ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ??? 1956? ??? ????? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????.) ????? ???? ????? ????????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ???????. ????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ???? ???? ???????? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ????????.

???? ??? 1945 ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? 1991 (??? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ???????) ????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ?????????? ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ???????? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????????.

???? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????.

???????? ?????

?? ??? ?????? ?????????? ???? ?? ??? 1870 ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??????. ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????????? ???? ???????? ??? 1917 ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ?????. ???? ?????????? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??????. ???? ????? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????. ??? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ??? 1924 ??????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????.

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??? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????????? ??????? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? 1825? ??????? ?? ?? ???????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???????????? ??? 1861 ??? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????. ???? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? (??????) ??? 1906 ???? ?? ????? ???? 1905 ??? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????????. ??? ??? ??? ????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ???????????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ??????.

??? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? 1917 ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ???? ?????? (?? ??????? ???????) ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ???? ???????.

???????? ?????? ???? ??????? ????????? ????? ????????.

???? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????.

??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ??????????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? 1917. ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????-??????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ??? 1918 ????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????.

??? ????? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??? 1917 ???? ??? 1923 ??? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????. ??? ???? ?? ??? 1921 ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??? ????????? ??? ??? ???????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????????.

???????? ??????? ?? ?????

?? ????? ??? ?????????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??? 1911 ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????????? ???????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ??? ??????? ????? ??????.

??? ????? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? 1921 ???? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ?? ??????????? (??? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ??? 1923.) ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ????????. ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ????????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ???????.

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?? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??? 1922 ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?? ?? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????^[10] ????? ????? ????? ????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????^[11] ??? ??????? ??? ???? ????????? ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ???? 1922? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ???????? ????? ??????^[12] ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????????? ?? ???????? ?????? ????????? ?????????^[13] ????? ???? ???????.

??? ????? ?? ?????? ???? 1924 ?????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ???????? ????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????????.

????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? 1917 ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ???????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ???????? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ????????. ????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ????????? ????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????????. ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ??? 1920 ???? ??? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? 30 ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ???????.^[14] ?????? ????? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ??? 1920 ??? ??????? ????? ??? 1931^[15] ?????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? 1928 ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? 1991.

??? ??????

??? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ??????? (?? ??? ????????) ????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????.

???? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ???????? ???????? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ??? 1924.

???? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???????????? ????????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ????? (?????) ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????????.

??? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ?? ??????? (???????). ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???? 1922? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? (????????) ?? ?????? (???????).

?? ??? 1928? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??????. ????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??? 1924. ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????.

????? ????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ?????. ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? 1991?.

???? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? (????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????????) ???????? ??? ??? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ???. ??? ??? ????? ?? ?????????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????. ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? 60 ????? ??? (??? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???????????) ??? ????? ????? ???? ?? 700 ??? ??? (???? ??????? ????????? ???????).

?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????. ??? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?????????? ??? ?? ???????? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ???????.

???? ???????????

???? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? 1932 ???? 1934? ??? 1933 ????? ???????? ??????????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? 1934 ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????. ????????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ????????? ?? ???? 1932 ?1933 ????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ??? 10 ?????? ???. ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????. ?? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?????. ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????. ?? ??????/????? 1939? ??? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ????????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ???????. ?? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??? 1940? ???? ??? 300 ??? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??????. ??? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ????????? ???????????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ?"??????? ??????". ?? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?? ???????? ????? ???????.

????? ???????? ???????

??? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?? ??. ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? 22 ???? 1941? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ?????. ?????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??? 1942 ??? ????? ??? 1943 ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ??? ?????. ??? ???? ????? ???????? 80 ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????

??? ??? ????? (1945) ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? 9 ?? 1945 ??? ???? ?? ??????? ???????.

???? ???????? ??? ?????? ????????? ????? ?????. ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ???????. ??? ??? ????? 27 ????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??????????. ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????.

???? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ???????????.

???? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ??????????? ?????? ?????.

????? ???????

???? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? 1945? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??? 1991? ??? ?????? ??????? ????????.

????? ???????

???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? 1950 ??? ????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? 1953 ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????.

????? ??????????

???? ????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????.

?????? ????? ???????

??? ??? 1991 ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ????????.

???????

?? ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ??????. ?????? ???????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????. ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????.

????? ???????

??? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ???. ????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ????????.

???? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ?????????. ??????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??????.

???????? ????????

???? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???. ?????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????????. ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ?????????. ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? 1946. ?? ??? ????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? (1872-1936)? ?????? ???????? (1876-1951)? ??????????? ??????? (1890-1986)? ?????? ???????? (1883-1954)? ?????? ??????? (1909-1989). ???? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???.

????????? (1919-1943)? ?? ?? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ????????. ????? ????????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????.? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ???????? ?? ???????? ????????? ???????.^[16]

???????? ???? ??????? ????????? ????????? ??? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? 1949-1991 ???? ??? ?????? ????????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??????. ???? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ????. ????? ????????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ????????? ????????.^[17]
??? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? 1955 ??? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ???????. ??? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ?????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????????. ????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ???????.^[18]^[19]
?????????? (1947-1956)? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ??? ?? ????????? ?? ??? 1943. ???? ???? ?????? ????????? ??? ??????? ?????????- ????????? ?? ???? ????? ????????. ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????. ????? ?????? ????? ????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????? ????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?? ??? 1947-1949. ??? ????????? ?? ??? 1948 ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?????. ???? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?????! ?????? ??????. ??? ????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????????. ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ???????? ???? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ?????????? ?????.^[20]^[21]

???????? ??????? (1919- 1939)

?????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ??? ??? ?????. ?????? ????????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????.^[22]

???? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????. ??? ????? ????????? ?????? ??? ??????. ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ????? –????????? ????????? ???????– ??????? ??? ?? 21 ???? 1919 ??? 1 ????? 1919. ?? ??? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ??????.^[23]

????? ??? 1921? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?? ??? ????. ????? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?????. ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?????. ????? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ??? 1922 ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ?????. ?? ????? ????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????.^[24]

?? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ???????? ??????????. ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ?? ??? 1922. ??? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????. ?????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? 1924. ??? ???? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????. ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ??????. ?? ??? 1933? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?????.^[25]^[26]

?? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ??????????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????????? ?? ???????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????. ???? ?????? ???? ?? ??? 1934? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ????????? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??????.^[27]

?? ??? 1939? ??? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ?????????. ????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ???????- ????????. ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ????????. ???? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???????.

????? ???????? ??????? (1939- 1945)

???? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ?????????? ???? ????? ?? ??? 1953. ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?????. ??? ??????? ??????? ????????????? ??? ??????? ??? ??????????? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????????.^[28]

????? ??????? (1945- 1991)

????? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? 1945. ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????? ??? ?? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ????????. ??? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????????? ??????????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? 1945. ????? ??? ????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????????.^[29]

??????? ????????

?? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?? ???????? ??????? ????????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????????? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ?????????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? 1922. ?? ??? 1924? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??????????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????????. ?? ??? 1929? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????. ?? ???? ????? ??? 1936? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?????????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ??? ???????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ????????? ????????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ????. ?? ????? 1940? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ????????. ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ????????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????. ??? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? 1940 ?????? ????????? ?? ??? 1956. ??? ????? 1956 ??????? 1991? ????? ?????? ?? 15 ??????? ???????.

?? ??? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ?? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????. ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? (???? ???? ??? ????) ???? ?????. ????? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? (?? ????? ??? ?????? ????????)? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????????. ??? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ????????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ???????. ???? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???? ???????.

????????

??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ??? ????????? ?? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?????????? ??? ??? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ????????? ??? ???????? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ??????????? ??? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????????? ??? ??? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ???????? ?????????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???????.

????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ???????. ???? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ???????. ???? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ?????. ??? ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????.^[30] ??? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? (NEP) ?? ??? 1921?? ??? ??? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????. ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????.^[31]

??? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ??????????? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???? 1928 ?1929?? ?? ??????? ?????????? ??????? (NEP) ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????. ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ????????? ????? ???????.^[31] ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????????? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ????????? ???????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????.^[32] ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ???????? ???????.^[33] ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????.^[34]

????? ????? ??????????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ???????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ?????????(?????????)? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??????.^[35] ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????. ??? ???? ??? ????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????.[2] ????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????????? ??? ????? ?????????.^[35] ???? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ???????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ????? ???? ???????? ?????????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ??????. ?? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ????????? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????. ?? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ????????? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ????????? ?? ???????.^[35] ???? ????????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ?? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? 40% ??? 60% ?? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ????? 15% ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????????? (13% ?? ????????? ????? ???????).^[36]

??? ????????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ???????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????. ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????? (Gosplan)? ??????? ?? ??? ?????. ??? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????. ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ???????? ?????????? ???????. ????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ???????. ???? ???????? ????????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ????. ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???. ???? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? (????? ??? ????? ???????) ????? ????????.^[31]

?????? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????. ?? ???? ???????? ????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ???????????.^[37] ????? ????? ???????????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????. ?? ?? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????????? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ???? ????????? ?????? ????? ?????.^[38] ??? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ???????. ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ????????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? 1965?.^[31]

??? ????? ?? ?? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????????? ?????? ????? ???? ????????? ?????[1][2] ??? ?? ???? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ????????? ????? ???????. ????? ???????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ??????.[3] ??? ???? ??? ??? 1970? ???? ??????? ????? ????????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ????.^[31]

???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? 1960 ?1989? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? (????? ??? 102 ????).^[39] ???? ????? ????? ??? 1986 ????? ?? ?????? ????????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ?????????? ?? ???? ???????.^[40] ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????. ?????? ?????????? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? 1989? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ????????? ???????? ???????. ???? ???????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????.^[41] ???? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????. ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??????.^[42]

?? ??? 1987?? ???? ??????? ????????? ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ????????????? ?? ????? ???????. ??? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????????? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ??????. ???? ????????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ????????. ???? ??????? ?????? ???? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ??????.^[31]^[38] ????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????????? (????? ????? ????????) ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ????? ????????^[43] ??? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?????.^[44] ?????????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??? 1928?? ??? ??????? ????????? ????? ??????.^[45]

?? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?,??? ? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ??????????. ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? ????????????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ????.^[46]

??????

?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ??? ????????????^[47] ??? ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???????. ?? ???????? ??? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ???? 1970 ?1975?. ??? ???? 1975 ?1980?? ??? ???? ????? ????? 2.6? ???.^[48] ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? 2 ?2.5? ???? ?????????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????????. ^[49] ??? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????.^[50]

?? ??? 1991?? ??? ??? ??????? ????????? ???? ???? ?????? ???? 82,000 ?? ????? ????? ?206,500 ?? ???? ????? ???????.^[51] ?? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????????.^[52] ?? ?????????? ????????????? ????? ??????? ????????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????.^[35] ?? ????? ?? ??? 1988?? ??? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ????????.^[53]

?????? ????????????

??? ??????? ????????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ????????????.^[54]^[55] ????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ?????????? ??? ??? ??? ??????. ????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ??????. ?? ????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ??? 40? ?? ?????? ????????? ?? ???????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ?? 5? ??? ?? ???????? ???????.^[56] ????? ??? 1989?? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ????????. ??? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ???????? ????? ??????. ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ????? ??????? ????? ????????????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ???????. ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ????? ??????.^[57] ?? ????????? ????? ???????? ???? ??? ??????? ????????? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ?????????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ?????.^[58] ??? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ???????????? ??? ????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??????.^[37]

?? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ???????. ???? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????? ??????. ?? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ??????????? ????????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ???????????.^[59]

?????? ??????

????? ?????????

????????

???? ??????? ????????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ?????????? ??? ???????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ???????? ???????? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ????????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????????.

??? ????? ??? ???????

??? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????.

????? ??? ?????

????? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ??? 1991 ??? ?????? ????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????.

???????

?????

????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????????. ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????.

?? ??????

????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????? ???? ????????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? (???????).

????? ??????? ????????

???????? ????? 1917 - 1922
????? ?????? 1922- 1953
????? ???????? 1953 - 1955
?????? ??????? 1955 - 1964
?????? ??????? 1964 - 1982
???? ???????? 1982 - 1984
??????? ????????? 1984- 1985
??????? ????????? 1985- 1991

???????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????

??? ???? ?????? ????????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????????? ????????.

???????? ??????? ????????

?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ??? 1956 ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ???:

?????? ????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????

??? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ????????.

??????? ??????

??? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? 1991 ?? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????????.

???? ?????

?????????

^ ???? ?????? ??? 1990.
^ ???? ??????.
^ ????–??????.
^ ???? ?????? ????
^ 34,374,483 km².

???????

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^ "Law of the USSR of March 14, 1990 N 1360-I 'On the establishment of the office of the President of the USSR and the making of changes and additions to the Constitution (Basic Law) of the USSR'". Garant.ru. ????? ?? ????? ?? 10 ?????? 2017. ???? ???? ?????? 12 ????? 2010.
^ "ARTICLE 124". ????? ?? ????? ?? 2 ????? 2019. ???? ???? ?????? 4 ?????? 2019.
^ "Article 52". ????? ?? ????? ?? 16 ?????? 2019. ???? ???? ?????? 4 ?????? 2019.
^ Charta Spojenych národ? (?????????? ??????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????), QID:Q171328
^ Almanaque Mundial 1996, Editorial América/Televisa, ???????, 1995, pages 548–552 (Demografía/Biometría table).
^ ^? ^? "GDP – Million – Flags, Maps, Economy, Geography, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System". ????? ?? ????? ?? 12 ????? 2018. ???? ???? ?????? 29 ????? 2018.
^ "Human Development Report 1990" (PDF). ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????. ?. 111. ????? (PDF) ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. ?????? ?????????. "???? ??????". ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.{{??????? ???}}: ????? ?????????: BOT: original URL status unknown (link)
^ Richard Sakwa The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union, 1917-1991: 1917-1991. Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0-415-12290-2, 9780415122900. pp. 140–143.
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^ (????????) Voted Unanimously for the Union. ???? ?????? 4 ?????? 2009 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.
^ (????????) Creation of the USSR at Khronos.ru. ???? ?????? 24 ???? 2011 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.
^ "70 Years of Gidroproekt and Hydroelectric Power in Russia". ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14.
^ (????????) On GOELRO Plan — at Kuzbassenergo. ???? ?????? 26 ?????? 2008 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.
^ Adam B. Ulam, Expansion and coexistence: the history of Soviet foreign policy, 1917–73 (1974)
^ Duncan Hallas, The Comintern: The History of the Third International (1985).
^ "Germany (East)", Library of Congress Country Study, Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ???? ?????? 1 May 2009 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.
^ Michael C. Kaser, Comecon: Integration problems of the planned economies (Oxford University Press, 1967).
^ Laurien Crump, The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969 (Routledge, 2015).
^ Heinz Timmermann, "The cominform effects on Soviet foreign policy." Studies in Comparative Communism 18.1 (1985): 3–23.
^ Ulam, Expansion and Coexistence (1974) pp 111–79.
^ Mueller? Gordon H. (1976). "Rapallo Reexamined: A New Look at Germany's Secret Military Collaboration with Russia in 1922". Military Affairs. ?. 40 ?. 3: 109–117. DOI:10.2307/1986524. ISSN:0026-3931. JSTOR:1986524.
^ Wilson? J. H. (1971). "American Business and the Recognition of the Soviet Union". Social Science Quarterly. ?. 52 ?. 2: 349–368. JSTOR:42860014.
^ Chris Ward, Stalin's Russia (2nd ed. 1999) pp 148–88.
^ Barbara Jelavich, St.Petersburg and Moscow: Czarist and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1814–1974 (1974) pp 342–46.
^ D.C. Watt, How War Came: the Immediate Origins of the Second World War 1938–1939 (1989).
^ Gurian? Waldemar (5 ????? 2009). "The Foreign Policy Of Soviet Russia". The Review of Politics. ????? ????? ????????. ?. 5 ?. 2: 177–193. DOI:10.1017/S0034670500048579. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14 – ??? ???? ??????.
^ Sakwa, Richard. Soviet Politics in Perspective. 2nd ed. London – N.Y.: Routledge, 1998.
^ Lih, Lars T., Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921, University of California Press (1990), p. 131
^ ^? ^? ^? ^? ^? ^? Gregory? Paul R. (2004). The Political Economy of Stalinism: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives. ??? ??? ????? ????????. ?. 218–220. ISBN:978-0-521-53367-6. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ Mawdsley? Evan (1998). The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union, 1929–1953. ??? ??? ????? ??????? ^{[???? ????]}‏. ?. 30. ISBN:978-0-7190-4600-1. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.{{??????? ?????}}: ????? ?????????: ?????? ????? ????? (link)
^ Wheatcroft? S. G.? Davies? R. W.? Cooper? J. M. (1986). Soviet Industrialization Reconsidered: Some Preliminary Conclusions about Economic Development between 1926 and 1941. Economic History Review. ?. 39. ?. 30–32. ISBN:978-0-7190-4600-1. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ "Reconstruction and Cold War". ????? ????????. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ ^? ^? ^? ^? "Reconstruction and Cold War". Library of Congress Country Studies. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ "Raskhody na oboronu i chislennost' vooruzhennykh sil SSSR" Расходы на оборону и численность вооруженных сил СССР [Defense spending and size of the Armed Forces of the USSR] (????????). Archived from the original on 2025-08-14.
^ ^? ^? "Economy". Library of Congress Country Studies. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ ^? ^? Hanson, Philip. The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Economy: An Economic History of the USSR from 1945. London: Longman, 2003.
^ Fischer & Easterly 1994? ???? 4.
^ Cereseto? Shirley (????? 1986). "Economic Development, Political-Economic System, and the Physical Quality of Life". American Journal of Public Health. ?. 76 ?. 6: 661–666. DOI:10.2105/ajph.76.6.661. PMC:1646771. PMID:3706593.
^ Fischer & Easterly 1994? ???? 5.
^ Rosefielde? Steven (1996). "Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s". Europe-Asia Studies. ?. 48 ?. 6: 956–987. DOI:10.1080/09668139608412393. JSTOR:152635. The new evidence shows that administrative command planning and Stalin's forced industrialization strategies failed in the 1930s and beyond. The economic miracle chronicled in official hagiographies and until recently faithfully recounted in Western textbooks has no basis in fact. It is the statistical artefact not of index number relativity (the Gerschenkron effect) but of misapplying to the calculation of growth cost prices that do not accurately measure competitive value. The standard of living declined during the 1930s in response to Stalin's despotism, and after a brief improvement following his death, lapsed into stagnation. Glasnost and post-communist revelations interpreted as a whole thus provide no basis for Getty, Rittersporn & Zemskov's relatively favorable characterization of the methods, economic achievements and human costs of Stalinism. The evidence demonstrates that the suppression of markets and the oppression of vast segments of the population were economically counterproductive and humanly calamitous, just as anyone conversant with classical economic theory should have expected.
^ Central Intelligence Agency (1991). "GDP – Million 1990". ???? ????? ??????. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ Central Intelligence Agency (1992). "GDP Per Capita – 1991". ???? ????? ??????. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ Allen? Robert (26 ????? 2009). Farm to Factory: A Reinterpretation of the Soviet Industrial Revolution. Princeton University Press. ?. 6-10. ISBN:978-0691144313.
^ "Human Development Report 1990 | Human Development Reports". hdr.undp.org. 1990. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
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^ Wilson 1983? ???? 295.
^ Wilson 1983? ????? 297–299.
^ Wilson 1983? ???? 299.
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^ Central Intelligence Agency (1992). "Soviet Union – Economy". ???? ????? ??????. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ Hardt? John Pearce (2003). Russia's Uncertain Economic Future: With a Comprehensive Subject Index. M.E. Sharpe. ?. 233. ISBN:978-0-7656-1208-3. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ "Science and Technology". Library of Congress Country Studies. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ "The Soviet Union and the United States – Revelations from the Russian Archives | Exhibitions – Library of Congress". www.loc.gov. 15 ????? 1992. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ Rose Eveleth (12 December 2013). Soviet Russia Had a Better Record of Training Women in STEM Than America Does Today ???? ?????? 6 October 2014 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.. Smithsonian.com. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
^ Offord? Catherine. "Stamping Out Science, 1948". The Scientist. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.
^ Chan, Chi Ling (11 Jun 2015). "Fallen Behind: Science, Technology and Soviet Statism". Intersect: The Stanford Journal of Science, Technology, and Society (???????????). 8 (3). Archived from the original on 2025-08-14.
^ MacFarland? Margo (3 ???? 1990). "Global Tech Strategies Brought to U.S". Washington Technology.

????? ??????

?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????????.

??????? ???????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????????? (??????????)

[3] ???? ?????? ??? 1990.

[6] ???? ??????.

[7] ????–??????.

[8] ???? ?????? ????

[20] 34,374,483 km².

[1] Hough, Jerry F. “The ‘Dark Forces," the Totalitarian Model, and Soviet History.” The Russian Review, vol. 46, no. 4, 1987, pp. 397–403

[2] "Law of the USSR of March 14, 1990 N 1360-I 'On the establishment of the office of the President of the USSR and the making of changes and additions to the Constitution (Basic Law) of the USSR'". Garant.ru. ????? ?? ????? ?? 10 ?????? 2017. ???? ???? ?????? 12 ????? 2010.

[4] "ARTICLE 124". ????? ?? ????? ?? 2 ????? 2019. ???? ???? ?????? 4 ?????? 2019.

[5] "Article 52". ????? ?? ????? ?? 16 ?????? 2019. ???? ???? ?????? 4 ?????? 2019.

[wikidata-78dde950d950f4c63a5e51ecd5e8253b794afa90-9] Charta Spojenych národ? (?????????? ??????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????), QID:Q171328

[10] Almanaque Mundial 1996, Editorial América/Televisa, ???????, 1995, pages 548–552 (Demografía/Biometría table).

[theodora.com-11] ? ^? "GDP – Million – Flags, Maps, Economy, Geography, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System". ????? ?? ????? ?? 12 ????? 2018. ???? ???? ?????? 29 ????? 2018.

[HDI-12] "Human Development Report 1990" (PDF). ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????. ?. 111. ????? (PDF) ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

[13] Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. ?????? ?????????. "???? ??????". ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.{{??????? ???}}: ????? ?????????: BOT: original URL status unknown (link)

[14] Richard Sakwa The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union, 1917-1991: 1917-1991. Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0-415-12290-2, 9780415122900. pp. 140–143.

[15] Julian Towster. Political Power in the U.S.S.R., 1917-1947: The Theory and Structure of Government in the Soviet State Oxford Univ. Press, 1948. p. 106.

[16] (????????) Voted Unanimously for the Union. ???? ?????? 4 ?????? 2009 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.

[17] (????????) Creation of the USSR at Khronos.ru. ???? ?????? 24 ???? 2011 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.

[18] "70 Years of Gidroproekt and Hydroelectric Power in Russia". ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14.

[Kuzbassenergo-19] (????????) On GOELRO Plan — at Kuzbassenergo. ???? ?????? 26 ?????? 2008 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.

[21] Adam B. Ulam, Expansion and coexistence: the history of Soviet foreign policy, 1917–73 (1974)

[22] Duncan Hallas, The Comintern: The History of the Third International (1985).

[loc-cs-23] "Germany (East)", Library of Congress Country Study, Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ???? ?????? 1 May 2009 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.

[24] Michael C. Kaser, Comecon: Integration problems of the planned economies (Oxford University Press, 1967).

[25] Laurien Crump, The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969 (Routledge, 2015).

[26] Heinz Timmermann, "The cominform effects on Soviet foreign policy." Studies in Comparative Communism 18.1 (1985): 3–23.

[27] Ulam, Expansion and Coexistence (1974) pp 111–79.

[28] Mueller? Gordon H. (1976). "Rapallo Reexamined: A New Look at Germany's Secret Military Collaboration with Russia in 1922". Military Affairs. ?. 40 ?. 3: 109–117. DOI:10.2307/1986524. ISSN:0026-3931. JSTOR:1986524.

[29] Wilson? J. H. (1971). "American Business and the Recognition of the Soviet Union". Social Science Quarterly. ?. 52 ?. 2: 349–368. JSTOR:42860014.

[30] Chris Ward, Stalin's Russia (2nd ed. 1999) pp 148–88.

[31] Barbara Jelavich, St.Petersburg and Moscow: Czarist and Soviet Foreign Policy, 1814–1974 (1974) pp 342–46.

[32] D.C. Watt, How War Came: the Immediate Origins of the Second World War 1938–1939 (1989).

[33] Gurian? Waldemar (5 ????? 2009). "The Foreign Policy Of Soviet Russia". The Review of Politics. ????? ????? ????????. ?. 5 ?. 2: 177–193. DOI:10.1017/S0034670500048579. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14 – ??? ???? ??????.

[sakwa-34] Sakwa, Richard. Soviet Politics in Perspective. 2nd ed. London – N.Y.: Routledge, 1998.

[35] Lih, Lars T., Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914–1921, University of California Press (1990), p. 131

[Gregory-2004-36] ? ^? ^? ^? ^? ^? Gregory? Paul R. (2004). The Political Economy of Stalinism: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives. ??? ??? ????? ????????. ?. 218–220. ISBN:978-0-521-53367-6. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

[37] Mawdsley? Evan (1998). The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union, 1929–1953. ??? ??? ????? ??????? ^{[???? ????]}‏. ?. 30. ISBN:978-0-7190-4600-1. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.{{??????? ?????}}: ????? ?????????: ?????? ????? ????? (link)

[38] Wheatcroft? S. G.? Davies? R. W.? Cooper? J. M. (1986). Soviet Industrialization Reconsidered: Some Preliminary Conclusions about Economic Development between 1926 and 1941. Economic History Review. ?. 39. ?. 30–32. ISBN:978-0-7190-4600-1. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

[39] "Reconstruction and Cold War". ????? ????????. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

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[41] "Raskhody na oboronu i chislennost' vooruzhennykh sil SSSR" Расходы на оборону и численность вооруженных сил СССР [Defense spending and size of the Armed Forces of the USSR] (????????). Archived from the original on 2025-08-14.

[Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies-42] ? ^? "Economy". Library of Congress Country Studies. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

[Hanson-43] ? ^? Hanson, Philip. The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Economy: An Economic History of the USSR from 1945. London: Longman, 2003.

[FOOTNOTEFischerEasterly19944-44] Fischer & Easterly 1994? ???? 4.

[45] Cereseto? Shirley (????? 1986). "Economic Development, Political-Economic System, and the Physical Quality of Life". American Journal of Public Health. ?. 76 ?. 6: 661–666. DOI:10.2105/ajph.76.6.661. PMC:1646771. PMID:3706593.

[FOOTNOTEFischerEasterly19945-46] Fischer & Easterly 1994? ???? 5.

[47] Rosefielde? Steven (1996). "Stalinism in Post-Communist Perspective: New Evidence on Killings, Forced Labour and Economic Growth in the 1930s". Europe-Asia Studies. ?. 48 ?. 6: 956–987. DOI:10.1080/09668139608412393. JSTOR:152635. The new evidence shows that administrative command planning and Stalin's forced industrialization strategies failed in the 1930s and beyond. The economic miracle chronicled in official hagiographies and until recently faithfully recounted in Western textbooks has no basis in fact. It is the statistical artefact not of index number relativity (the Gerschenkron effect) but of misapplying to the calculation of growth cost prices that do not accurately measure competitive value. The standard of living declined during the 1930s in response to Stalin's despotism, and after a brief improvement following his death, lapsed into stagnation. Glasnost and post-communist revelations interpreted as a whole thus provide no basis for Getty, Rittersporn & Zemskov's relatively favorable characterization of the methods, economic achievements and human costs of Stalinism. The evidence demonstrates that the suppression of markets and the oppression of vast segments of the population were economically counterproductive and humanly calamitous, just as anyone conversant with classical economic theory should have expected.

[48] Central Intelligence Agency (1991). "GDP – Million 1990". ???? ????? ??????. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

[49] Central Intelligence Agency (1992). "GDP Per Capita – 1991". ???? ????? ??????. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

[50] Allen? Robert (26 ????? 2009). Farm to Factory: A Reinterpretation of the Soviet Industrial Revolution. Princeton University Press. ?. 6-10. ISBN:978-0691144313.

[51] "Human Development Report 1990 | Human Development Reports". hdr.undp.org. 1990. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

[FOOTNOTEWilson1983105–108-52] Wilson 1983? ????? 105–108.

[FOOTNOTEWilson1983295-53] Wilson 1983? ???? 295.

[FOOTNOTEWilson1983297–299-54] Wilson 1983? ????? 297–299.

[FOOTNOTEWilson1983299-55] Wilson 1983? ???? 299.

[Central_Intelligence_Agency-1991-56] Central Intelligence Agency (1991). "Soviet Union – Communications". ???? ????? ??????. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

[57] Central Intelligence Agency (1992). "Soviet Union – Economy". ???? ????? ??????. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

[58] Hardt? John Pearce (2003). Russia's Uncertain Economic Future: With a Comprehensive Subject Index. M.E. Sharpe. ?. 233. ISBN:978-0-7656-1208-3. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

[59] "Science and Technology". Library of Congress Country Studies. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

[60] "The Soviet Union and the United States – Revelations from the Russian Archives | Exhibitions – Library of Congress". www.loc.gov. 15 ????? 1992. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

[61] Rose Eveleth (12 December 2013). Soviet Russia Had a Better Record of Training Women in STEM Than America Does Today ???? ?????? 6 October 2014 ??? ???? ??? ??? ????.. Smithsonian.com. Retrieved 26 June 2014.

[62] Offord? Catherine. "Stamping Out Science, 1948". The Scientist. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2025-08-14. ???? ???? ?????? 2025-08-14.

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??????? ? ????????	????? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ????????? ????? ?????? ????????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???????(1940–1991) Cursed soldiers ???? ????? 1950 1953 uprising in Plzeň ??????? 1953 ?? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???????? 1956 ???????? ?????? ?? 1956 ?????? ??????? 1956 ????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? 1965 ???? ???? / ??? ??? ????? ?????????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? 1968 ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? 1968 ???????? ?????? 1968 ?????????? ????????? 1970 ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? 1972 ???????? ????? 1976 ???? ????? (????? ????? ?????? ????????) / ?? ??? ??????? ???????? / ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????? 1981 ????? ????? Jeltoqsan ???? ??????? ????? 9 ????? ?????? ????????? 1989 ????? ??????
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